Metaphysics Final

Directions: Pick one of the following questions and write a thorough essay on it.

1. What is a whole according to the Nyaya Vaisesikas? How does the Nyaya-Vaisesika category theory allow for the existence of wholes (i.e. how does it allow for the possibility of substances inhering in other substances?) What are the causes of wholes according to the Nyaya? What are the causes of their qualities? Give one of the Nyaya arguments for the existence of wholes. Give one of the Buddhist objections to the existence of wholes and the Nyaya response to this objection.

2. What is the modal conception of essence? What difficulties does it face? What is Aquinas’ conception of essence? How does it avoid the problems with the modal view? What difficulties does it face? Which of these seems most grave? Why? [Note: I have in mind here Aquinas’ conception of two kinds of necessary accidents.]

3. What does Aquinas think is the principle of individuation for material substances? Why does he think this? What conception of the nature of individuality does it rest on? Why is this conception problematic? What problems does Aquinas’ view face even granted his problematic conception of what it is to be an individual?

4. Why did Scotus disagree with Aquinas’ theory of the principle of individuation for material substances? In what ways is Scotus’ concept of what it is to be an individual like that of Aquinas? What is problematic about this conception? What did Scotus think is the principle of individuation? What are the two chief difficulties with his theory?

5. What did Leibniz think is the principle of individuation? Why did he reject both Aquinas’ and Scotus’ theory of the principle of individuation? How is his theory similar to their theory? How is it different? Why did Leibniz think that no two individuals could have the same sort of specific essence? Why did he think that all the properties of an individual are essential to it? What are the chief difficulties with Leibniz’s theory?

6. What is the Nyaya principle of individuation for qualities? What is its principle of individuation for wholes? What is its principle of individuation for simple substances? Why did the Nyaya think they needed different principles for different kinds of things? What general principle of distinction did the Nyaya assume? What are some problems with this principle? What are some problems with the Nyaya theory of individuation even granted the principle the theory assumes?

7. How did the Nyaya conceive of universals? How was Udayana able to use inherence relations to clearly distinguish universals from substances, qualities and motions, inherence, and ultimate particularities? What two arguments did the Nyaya give for the existence of universals? Give two Buddhist objections to the existence of universals and the Nyaya responses to them.

8. What does Aquinas mean when he refers to “the nature considered absolutely”. How does the “nature considered absolutely” differ from the nature as found in things and the nature as found in the mind? What accidents accrue to it as found in things and as found in the mind? How does Aquinas use the concept of “the nature considered absolutely” to defend realism and the doctrine that the human mind is immaterial? What are some difficulties with Aquinas’ concept of “the nature considered absolutely”.